Musical Development of the Under-Fives

A common misconception in the educational world is that those students who are classed as “musically gifted” must have been born with a natural talent for music. In fact, the latest research into the field of musical development has found that musical skills can be found in every newborn baby, and it is through stimulation and a positive musical environment that these skills can be developed successfully. The aim of this assignment is to focus on the musical development within the Early Years stages, and my own observations of a child’s behaviour with regard to musical elements such as pulse, rhythm, melody and pitch will be discussed. Relevant literature and current research into the fields of Early Years work and musical development will be taken into account to support my findings.

Zoltan Kodály once wrote, “Music education begins nine months before the birth of the mother”, and although it was several decades later before pre-natal development was considered significant, the unremitting advance of technology in today’s world has meant that research into this field has escalated in recent years. With the aid of MRI scans and computers, foetal studies have found that the nerve cells of the inner ear start to work in the fifth or sixth month of pregnancy, while in the seventh month the foetus is able to recognize sounds from outside the womb (Lecanuet, 1996), meaning that babies are exposed to acoustic encounters before birth. Using audio recordings from the womb, Lecanuet also found that the mother’s voice, as well as voices close to the mother, stood out from the internal noises of the mother’s body. The recordings showed that although the voices were muffled and significantly weaker in the womb, they maintained strong characteristics in the rhythm and intonation of speech.

Further research into this area has shown that babies in the womb can not only hear external sounds but also have the ability to remember and later recognize the sounds after birth. A study by Hepper (1991) found that a group of babies who were only a few days old recognised the theme tune from the TV soap opera ‘Neighbours’ after being exposed to it every day during the pregnancy. When the theme was played back after birth, the babies responded with heightened alertness, lower heart rates and fewer movements. In another study, the bassoon theme from Prokofiev’s ‘Peter and the Wolf’ was played to a group of pregnant mothers over a period of four weeks during the last few months of pregnancy (Feijoo, 1981). When the same music was played to the babies after birth it was noted that the babies stopped crying. These reactions to familiar music give a clear indication that musical ability is present while the baby is still in the womb.

Even before birth, babies are exposed to rhythm, pitch and melody through voices and external sounds. The mother’s constant heartbeat will be felt and heard throughout the pregnancy and this introduces pulse. Susan Young believes that pre-natal musical activity is invaluable to both the mother and baby: “Perhaps most valuably, through singing the babies can begin to form pre-birth relationships with their parents and parents with them. There is even beginning to be some suggestion that ‘sung-to babies’ show certain advances in general development and better emotional balance (Whitewell, 1999)”. Although introducing the unborn baby to musical elements may be beneficial in terms of overall development, for many people music forms part of their daily life because of the emotions it produces. Music is a means of relaxation and, as pregnancy can be a stressful time, singing to the baby and listening to music could help create a less stressful pregnancy, benefiting both the mother and child.

Musical ability continues to be evident in newborn babies. Trehub (1997) carried out a study in which 5-month old babies were shown to be more sensitive to melodic pattern than they were to pitch. When a tune that the babies had become familiar with was transposed up or down three semitones there was very little reaction. However, when the melodic pattern was altered there were clear signs of a response, for example, a change in heartbeat or movement. Although the babies showed little response to a modulation of the familiar melody, another study has found that infants can differentiate between small changes in pitch (Lynch et al, 1990). A group of 6-month old babies and a group of adults both listened to major and minor Western scales with some notes out of tune. This was then followed by a series of non-Western scales, also with some notes out of tune. The authors of the study found that while the adults who grew up in a Western music culture were only able to recognize the notes that were out of tune in the Western scales, the infant group were able to recognize the notes that were out of tune in both types of scales. This illustrates that the 6-month old babies displayed a higher level of musical intelligence than the adults.

As well as showing signs of awareness of pitch, studies in the 1960s found that newborn babies were able to differentiate between regular and irregular click sounds (Spiegler, 1967), while other researchers found that 5-month old infants could recognize simple changes of rhythm (Shutter-Dyson & Gabriel, 1981). These clear signs of musical awareness in young babies adhere to the theory that musical ability is not just something that certain children are born with. However, in order to develop these skills, the baby requires the appropriate stimulation and ultimately a multi-sensory experience to develop these important kinaesthetic skills.

As young babies naturally develop, they gradually begin to explore the world around them by using their senses. In relation to music, they will listen and become more aware of the different sounds that make up their environment, they will touch and use different objects or body parts to make sounds, and they will begin to use their own voice to replicate sounds they have heard. This is evident upon observing almost any young baby, as their natural instinct is to explore and experiment; this is how they learn. Sounds can also be produced by using body parts and objects. The following description was observed in a Sure Start Children’s Centre.

"James (nine months), who is the youngest in the group, crawls away from the rest of the class who are playing with percussion instruments. When he gets to the water cooler at the side of the room he attempts to pull himself up and reach the top. Sarah, a care-worker, notices this and lifts James up so that he can reach the top. He then begins hitting the water cooler using both hands in short bursts of repeated steady beats, with a pause separating each phrase."
This observation illustrates the natural instinct for a baby to explore the objects around them and the sounds that they can produce. This specific observation also highlights that James has already developed the ability to produce a rhythmic pattern using his hands. Once fine motor skills have developed adequately to enable a baby to grip a small object, the exploration of sound is then extended through actions such as banging, throwing and shaking.

By providing a young baby with a musical environment and encouraging their exploration of sound, a variety of different skills will be developed. If finger-play nursery rhymes such as ‘Round and Round the Garden’ and ‘This Little Piggy’ are used regularly with a baby, the words and rhythm of the rhyme will not only become familiar, but the baby will also begin to anticipate the tickling at the end of the rhyme. Songs that involve bouncing, lifting and carrying can also be included. Each of these assisted movements will stimulate the child, develop their physical abilities and provide the multi-sensory experience that is essential to a child’s development. The repetition of these songs is also a vital element of a child’s development as this is how everything in these crucial early years is learnt: through practice and repetition.

Pitch is an important element of not only the musical development of a child, but also in their general progression. As previously stated, pitch awareness is present even before birth, so it is vital that this is continually developed throughout the early years. The use of infant directed speech is believed to be an important first step in the development of pitch. However, as Young (2003, p. 27) notes: “Vocalisation can encompass the speaking voice, the singing voice and the many kinds of sing-speech which lie across the whole spectrum of voice use: crooning, humming, chanting, chirruping.” The point she is making is that although speaking to a child using the repetitive and slow characteristics of infant directed speech is important, the use of a range of pitches is also something that can be achieved through singing or just producing different sounds.

As young babies grow into toddlers, new worlds are opened up to them as they develop the ability to walk and talk. One of the most significant developments during this stage is that they begin to initiate their own play, whether it is through singing, dancing or creating music. The following observation was taken from the same Sure Start Children’s Centre session as previously documented.

"Keira (20 months) explores the cupboards of the toy kitchen. She finds two metal saucepans, one plastic bowl and one ceramic plate. Using a wooden spoon she starts hitting one of the saucepans. Because all four objects are a different size and made of different materials, it produces four different pitches and timbres. Keira’s mum who has been watching begins to sing ‘Twinkle, Twinkle’ as the two saucepan pitches sound a fifth apart. Still playing the percussive objects Keira hums along with the singing and starts to bounce by bending her knees. The song is repeated several times until Keira loses interest."

This one observation encompasses several common characteristics of a toddler’s natural musical ability. The innate instinct to explore is still a noticeable element of Keira’s music-making and, because she has now developed the motor skills required to move by herself and the fine motor skills which are crucial to manipulating objects, the possibilities of her musical exploration are endless. Curiosity also plays an important part as she wants to find out what will happen when she hits the wooden spoon on the saucepan, and how different it might be when she hits the plate instead. Even as adults this curiosity remains. For example, if you give a percussion instrument to an adult their natural instinct is to play it to see what sound it produces, even if they know already.

At this age, toddlers will be familiar with songs that have been sung throughout their first year, and because of this they will have developed an understanding of pitch. In the case of Keira, she was aware that each object had a different pitch and she enjoyed listening to the different sounds. Although she might not have understood the connection between the two pitches of the saucepans and ‘Twinkle, Twinkle’, over time, connections like these will become more obvious if the parent or carer highlights them.

The knee-bouncing movement observed in the session is a very familiar physical response to music for toddlers. Movement is one of the fundamental elements of a child’s development from conception onwards, and the relationship between music and movement has been found to be particularly significant. Emile Jaques-Dalcroze (1865-1950) believed that movement was a vital element of music education, “Aware that musical experience depends on the power and quality of physical sensation (the kinaesthetic sense), he [Dalcroze] decided to focus attention on two of music’s basic elements – rhythm and dynamic intensity – with the students using their bodies as their instruments of expression.” (Dobbs, 1991, Preface). This theory led to the introduction of the Dalcroze method where elements such as pitch, tempo and phrasing are learnt through the movement of the body. For an infant, this connection between music and movement is already a natural reaction, and movements such as bouncing up and down are a familiar response to music as they are still exploring their physical capabilities.

Moving finally on to pre-school infants, we find that all the skills and abilities previously mentioned are developed further. Pitch development throughout the first few years of life has meant that by the age of 3-4 children will be able to sing independently and with others, they will be more aware of their own vocal range, and will also be able to replicate pitches more easily. By this stage they will have also built up a repertoire of favourite songs that they will be able to sing by themselves. The following observation was documented in a private music class for the under fives.

"The group of six 3-4 year olds are sitting on the floor around a large drum. Taking it in turns the teacher sings a line and the child responds while beating the drum in time. Daniel (four years) takes his turn and sings perfectly in tune, at the same pitch as the teacher. Although he sings the response at a faster tempo, he still beats the drum in time to the tempo he has chosen."

This example shows that Daniel has developed an awareness of pitch and has acquired the ability to replicate the pitch that was chosen by the teacher. His choice of a faster tempo could have arisen through choice, excitement at having his turn, or because he has not yet developed the ability to replicate a tempo, nevertheless his ability to beat the drum in time to his chosen tempo shows that he does possess the skills required to keep a steady beat.

Due to their physical capabilities, infants are able to use instruments to aid their music making by the age of 3-4. This description was also observed at the private early years music class.

"So far Alex (three years) has sat at the side of the room not wanting to join in with the singing games. When the teacher brings out the instrument box Alex joins the circle. The children are asked to experiment with their chosen instruments. When asked to play quietly Alex shakes his egg shaker very slowly, and then very fast when asked to play loudly."

As each child will have had a different musical background and upbringing, it should not be expected that they would want to join in with the singing. By providing instruments Alex then felt comfortable enough to join the group and was able to express himself through the egg shaker.

As the infant’s surroundings begin to expand into other areas including art, dance and the environment, connections to music are formed and this provides additional stimulation for the child. Young (2009, p. 112) believes that, “Tapping into children’s abilities for cross-modal – or analogical – thinking is not only a means to extend children’s musical understanding, it is also a powerful means to develop imagination.” Being able to create links between a variety of art forms will also provide the child with a greater opportunity to express themselves.

It is important to note that each stage of development that has been described will have been the result of a stimulating upbringing in a positive environment. Without the encouragement and support of a parent or carer, there would be a risk that important stages in the infant’s development could be missed out, sometimes leading to problems in later life. Having said that, the nature of today’s world means that music is more freely available than ever before and so the possibility of creating a musical environment is more accessible.

To conclude, it is clear that the importance of musical education beginning from the very earliest stages of life is a crucial topic and all the research carried out has come to the same positive conclusion. As Young (2003, p. 21) summarises, “It is an exciting time. For as research uncovers just how musically competent young children are, and just how fundamental music is to our very nature, so this runs alongside real efforts to improve the quality of education and care for the very young. To foster music from the earliest days is being recognised as having far-reaching and important benefits.”

References

Dobbs, J.P.B. (Preface)(1991) in Bachmann, M-L. (author) Dalcroze Today: An Education Through and into Music. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Feijoo, J. (1981) ‘Le Foetus’ in Herbinet, E. and Busnel, M-C. (eds.) L’Aube des Sens. Stock, Paris, pp. 192-209.

Hepper, P.G. (1991) ‘An Examination of Fetal Learning Before and After Birth’, Irish Journal of Psychology (12) pp.95–107.

Lecanuet, J-P. (1996) ‘Prenatal Auditory Experience’ in Deliege, I. and Sloboda, J. (eds.) Musical Beginnings: Origins and Development of Musical Competence. Oxford: Oxford University Press (1996), pp. 3-25.

Lynch, M.P., Eilers, R.E., Oller, D.K. & Urbano, R.C. (1990) ‘Innateness, Experience, and Music Perception’, Psychological Science (1) pp. 272-276.

Shutter-Dyson, R. & Gabriel, C. (1981) ‘The Psychology of Musical Ability’ in Colwell, R. (ed.) MENC Handbook of Musical Cognition and Development. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Spiegler, D.M. (1967) ‘Factors Involved in the Development of Prenatal Rhythmic Sensitivity’ in Colwell, R. (ed.) MENC Handbook of Musical Cognition and Development. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Trehub, S., Schellenberg, G., & Hill, D. (1997) ‘The Origins of Music Perception and Cognition: A Developmental Perspective’ in Deliege, I. and Sloboda, J. (eds.) Perception and Cognition of Music. East Sussex: Psychology Press, pp. 103–128.

Young, S. (2009) Music 3-5. Oxon: RoutledgeFalmer.

Young, S. (2003) Music with the Under-Fours. Oxon: RoutledgeFalmer.