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Are musicians who perform without scores freer and more creative than those who perform with scores?
Introduction
This essay will be presented in three parts. Firstly, I will analyse the terminology used in the question and address the subsequent implications. Secondly, I will present a wide range of musical examples drawn from a variety of genres. Finally, I will provide additional arguments that question the existing literature.
The question implies that musicians are polarised into two categories - those who read scores and notation and those who do not. It is important to address both ends of the musical spectrum, but realise that there are musicians who classify ‘middle ground’,
Defining the Terminology in the Question
‘Score’ is defined by the New Grove Dictionary to mean ‘a form of manuscript or printed music in which the staves, linked by bar-lines, are written above one another’. This indicates that there is no restriction to discussing specific genres in this essay because varying genres of music use different methods of scoring and notation.
A definition of notation is ‘a visual analogue of musical sound, either as a record of sound heard or imagined, or as a set of visual instructions for performers’. This definition encompasses the opportunity to discuss western classical notation, graphic scores, chord charts, lead sheets and the improvisatory process.
Different musical genres notate music and use scores in different ways, therefore, it is important to recognise why we have musical scores. The answer is, to serve a purpose. According to the article, ‘Notation Systems and Musical Information’, published in 1979, musical notation ‘is the only way we know to conserve music’ (Cohen and Katz, 1979).
For performers who learn and play from notation (Beethoven, Prokofiev, Chopin) sight-reading skills are required. As well as providing performers with notation, Bach and other composers writing in the baroque period would use figured bass in their composition. Three centuries later, Schoenberg and Kurtág scored for piano using graphic or picture notation and in jazz and popular music, performers are required to have the skills to read western classical notation, lead sheets and chord charts.
By analysing each scoring technique, using musical examples, it will be evident which techniques provide creative opportunities in performance.
Since freedom and creativity are the criteria being used to compare the musical examples, it is essential to define their meaning. One definition of freedom is ‘not limited or controlled’ (Cambridge Dictionaries Online). Any restrictions caused by the amount of notation in performance should be considered.
Another definition of free is ‘without being subjected to traditional conventions’ (Encarta World Dictionary). It is important to consider whether there are specific conventions concerning the performer, regarding the musical style of their performance, which could consequently cause restraint, or decrease the amount of creativity in their playing.
The definitions of ‘creative’ are ‘producing or using original and unusual ideas’ (Cambridge Dictionaries Online) and ‘making imaginative use of the… resources available’ (Encarta World Dictionary). A performer’s creativity could depend on the genre of music so it is important to see whether there is any correlation between scoring and musical genres.
In order to ensure parity, this essay will restrict the music examples chosen to piano and keyboard scores.
Musical Examples
Western Classical Notation
Firstly, it is necessary to explore the creative opportunities for performers who play from western classical notation and an example of a composer who wrote in this way was Johann Sebastian Bach. In addition to using notation, Bach used figured bass in his keyboard writing and a piece that demonstrates this is his Sonata for Flute and Harpsichord.
Figured bass was common practice for composers writing for keyboard instruments in the Baroque period. In the Sonata for Flute and Harpsichord, Bach provides the basso continuo but often in ensemble work, the cello would take this part and the harpsichord player would use the numbered figured bass written under the continuo to construct additional chords and harmony. In the ‘Introduction to the Philosophy of Music’ Peter Kivy explains how the harpsichordist ‘can play all sorts of other notes, at his own discretion, just so long as he does not disobey the ‘numbers’ and the general rules of musical ‘grammar’ that Bach’s period mandates’ (Kivy, 2002). This suggests that although, some believe traditional conventions cause restrictions for the performer, with Bach, using a convention such as figured bass actually enables the harpsichord player more freedom in their performance.
Béla Bartok ‘derived his notational style from composers of the past’ (Fischer, 1995). He was commissioned to create an edition of ‘Bach’s Notebook for Anna Magdalena Bach’ in 1916. Where Bach would have paid no attention to specific articulation in his compositions (because of the capabilities of the harpsichord), Bartok provides a ‘detailed list of specific instructions for the interpretation of the various articulation signs with the edition’ (Fischer, 1995).
Bartok’s edition of ‘Bach’s Notebook’ provides the performer with one interpretation for the music. If the pianist respects the edited articulation and dynamic markings Bartok has added, they will have less creative input than if they were to interpret Bach’s original score. However, because the piano allows a pianist to create a range of dynamics and Bach did not make any specifications, the subtlety of musical expression is entirely dependant on the performer.
Kivy compares the Bach Sonata with a Sonata for Oboe and Piano by Donizetti to show that straightforward notation allows for very little creativity. Donizetti explains that the performer playing his piano part should ‘play only the notes [he has] written’ (Kivy, 2002, 231). Donizetti does not believe the performer should be able to add self-expression to that already marked by the composer. Stephen Davies argues against this suggesting that the performance process ‘must be creative’. He believes that performers can be advised by the composers’ intentions but should ‘not sacrifice their creative autonomy’ or consequently the performance could be a ‘bare transmission of characterless notes’.
Where creating new ideas is concerned, there is little a performer can do when the musical ideas are determined on manuscript, other than to make subtle adjustments to tempo and dynamic to convey expression. Davies’ argument seems more relevant to performers who do not use scores.
The ‘Suzuki Method’ does not initially use scores and instead encourages the musician to begin learning at an early age and to learn all repertoires by ear. By listening to and internalising the music before being able to read notation, the idea is that the notes will become mother tongue. One might imagine the performer to be more expressive naturally, however, the musician has already internalised a performance and consequently learnt the articulation another way. Here, the score has not been the cause for restricted expression, but the ear has. Arguably it is not just the score that restricts a performers’ creativity, but also the conventions that the performer feels the need to respect.
Although he was writing later in musical history, Prokofiev wrote in a similar way to Donizetti. In Prokofiev’s ‘La Pluie et L’arc – en – ciel’ the performer does not require a great level of technical ability but should be aware of how specific Prokofiev has been with his preference for articulation. Conventional to the contemporary classical genre, Prokofiev used a vast range of dynamics and articulation within very few bars and according to Stith Bennett, the tendency within the history of notation has been to use ‘more and more detail’. In ‘The Problems and Methods of Notation’, it is suggested that composers writing predetermined music today ‘cannot permit themselves to leave anything to chance’, describing the music as ‘meticulously calculated’ (Stone, 1976).
Lukas Foss explores the nature of imprecise performance as a result of detailed notation by using Schoenberg as an example. Foss takes one bar of notation and transcribes it using description instead of articulation. It is particularly interesting to note the amount of freedom the expressive markings initiate when compared to the precise notation, which Foss describes as putting the ‘performer in a strait jacket’.
Graphic Scores
A composer who uses various forms of notation is György Kurtág. He was commissioned to write a collection of piano pieces called Games (Játékok) offering children a ‘liberating approach to making music’ (Beckles Wilson, 2002).
The purpose of the pieces is to encourage the child or adult to experiment with sound rather than to ‘analyse the score intellectually’. Therefore, the performer does not need to be too concerned with Kurtág’s intentions as the composer. The graphic notation enables a classically trained pianist the opportunity to play using other methods from different influences, for example, the spontaneity involved in ‘free declamation and folk music’ (Cohen and Katz, 1979).
By using less specific notation, the pianist is given scope to their creativity and can enjoy the ‘entertaining games to attract the young to the piano’ (McLay, 1984). Allowing the performer to experiment is freeing them of predetermined decisions.
Western Classical Notation with Improvisation
Vince Mendoza wrote the music for ‘Epiphany’ using a variety of compositional techniques ensuring that the ‘lush, romantic orchestrations’ coexist with the ‘jazz portions of this piece in perfect harmony’.
While the orchestra read their conventional classical notation, the jazz ensemble integrates the composed motifs with improvised solos. John Taylor is the pianist in the jazz ensemble and his role is to integrate Mendoza’s composed material with jazz improvisations.
Between the composed and the improvised are predetermined ‘licks’ or motifs. These motifs are what tie the two approaches together. One would think that Taylor has freedom when improvising, however, because the existing melodies from the orchestral work determine the tone of the piece, the most respectful way to improvise around the existing material is to approach the composition as a jazz musician would approach a jazz standard. This would be by signifyin’ on the melody and developing existing harmonic ideas. By considering the existing material, the freedom is immediately withdrawn from the performer.
Charts and Improvisation
In popular music, studio and session musicians are ‘expected to be flexible enough to work with various kinds of notation’ (Stith Bennett, 1983). This could involve playing from western notation for rhythm and pitch, from chord charts or by ear. The musician can be creative in the event that they are required to write their own part for a track. If the pianist or keyboard player is playing from a chart, they will have a similar amount of creativity as the harpsichord player in the Bach.
There are a variety of ways to compose and arrange jazz music. Some musicians prefer to use demonstration rather than score to communicate their expression to fellow musicians. This is because numerous jazz composers believe that ‘written parts tend to inhibit the creative abilities of the musicians’ (Dommett, 1964). However, the nature of jazz is not always as innovative as one might assume. Other musicians use scores to aid them in performance.
Creativity within jazz music is dependant on how each individual or group work collectively. How much of the structure has been predetermined prior to the performance? Lead sheets are a traditional form of scoring in jazz therefore a huge amount of compositions and arrangements are notated for the performer. There is debate regarding the degree of spontaneity involved in improvisation. While many non-musicians believe that improvisation is ‘being spontaneous’ (Demsey) and the misconception that jazz musicians play ‘whatever comes to mind’ in performance, Dommett recognises an ‘inner organization’ to the improvisatory process.
In ‘Jazz Improvisation and Concepts of Virtuosity’, it is argued that a solo is a ‘concise, eloquent answer’ following a melody or previous solo. Demsey compares the practice of jazz soloing, to conversation. By highlighting the similarities between modes and harmonies with nouns and adjectives it is implied that improvising is as natural to a jazz musician as sentence construction.
Due to the misconception that soloing is spontaneous, it is essential to consider the predetermined elements within improvisation. Whether or not the musicians are presented with a lead sheet, the ensemble will have a mental score or ‘organic order hidden behind’ the individuals’ improvisation. The musician will account for form, harmony, time, rhythm and voice leading in their playing and the individual’s skill will improve with practice and experience.
Many performers will have new ideas for solos emerging, although they are more likely to repeat and replay old solos. In the Companion Jazz, Demsey explains how Fletcher Henderson would often take ‘improvised licks he heard his band members playing, organizing and harmonizing them into an arrangement’. This enables the soloist to build up a repertoire of different solos for a variety of contexts.
The solo does not grant the performer with ‘unfettered freedom’. As with western classical music, there are conventions and practices to regard.
Improvisation
The improvisation discussed previously in this essay was considered within the context of an ensemble environment. Within this environment there are influences that restrict the creativity of the individual performer. The last musical example, ‘The Koln Concert’, by Keith Jarrett, does not have other musicians or predetermined chord and form structures to inhibit the musical freedom.
The ‘Koln Concert’ was part of a solo tour by Keith Jarrett and it was recorded on 24th January in 1975. The performance was instinctive, using improvisation, without relying on other musicians or harmonic restrictions. This left Jarrett entirely to his own devices to start and complete an unplanned creation within the duration of a concert. He had no score and nothing was predetermined as far as we are aware.
What makes Jarrett particularly interesting as a musical example for this essay is that he is also a classical pianist. He suggests that although improvisation is the deepest personal way to ‘deal with reality… there is no less depth in working with someone else’s music’ (Carr, 1991). This shows that although Jarrett feels more creative through his improvisatory solo concerts, he does appreciate that there are still creative opportunities when using scores.
Jarrett’s performance at the ‘Koln ‘Concert’ demonstrates a performer’s creativity in abundance. The music ‘sounds free’ (Jarrett cited in Carr, 1991) although there is still a ‘clear organic logic’ (Carr, 1991) to his playing.
The ‘Koln Concert’ is so special because Jarrett’s journey from the start to the end of the concert was so creative. According to Carr, the essence of Jarrett’s music will ‘always escape transcription’ so when other pianists wish to recreate his performance the same essence will never be captured. Although some pianists may benefit from seeing the ‘Koln Concert’ transcribed, ‘the essential thing about that music that caught them when they heard it will not be on that paper’ (Jarrett cited in Carr, 1991). With no score, Jarrett not only has the role of performer to fulfill but he also takes over the role of composer.
Conclusion
The amount of creativity and freedom of expression that the performer has is dependant on the composer’s intentions and, more importantly, how these intentions are conveyed to the performer through the score.
For musicians who play from western classical notation, the extent of their creativity depends on the specificity of the composer and how respectful the performer is to the composers’ intentions. When a composer has specified articulation, dynamic markings or has written within an established musical convention, it is considered essential to honour the intentions behind it.
Essentially, the performer is required to be as authentic as possible in their performance and successful performers are ‘identified on the basis of their ability to learn and perform as subscribers to a particular kind of notation’ (Stith Bennett). In my opinion this significantly limits the freedom and creativity of the performer.
If the performer believes that they can enhance the musical intentions of the composer are they at liberty to do so? This may be achieved by using musical expression that is not notated by the composer; or they could choose to disregard the composer’s intentions. In western classical music this is likely to be criticised and is not normally encouraged. As a classically trained pianist, I would never drastically alter the piece as I felt it would disrespect the composer’s intentions. However, I do feel that this causes limitations in my creativity and consequently it has increased my desire to be a composer.
Where there is no score and the performer is part of an ensemble, their creativity will depend to some extent on the surrounding musicians. They will need to regard the constraints of predetermined structure and harmony. This type of performer will be aware that even though there is no score, there is a mental score to determine when and how they are creative.
There is certainly no limit to Keith Jarrett’s creativity and the type of improvisatory performance demonstrated in the ‘Koln Concert’ has no formal notation and allows for ample amounts of freedom. With no score and no other musicians influences to consider, Keith Jarrett is the ultimate example of a performer with unlimited creativity.
In conclusion, regardless of whether or not a score is used, the performer will always encounter creative limitations unless they take on the role of composer and personally I believe that unless you are able to convey your musical expression as a performing musician, performance is meaningless.
